The Role of
Observation
in Computer Science Learning *
Rob Faux
University of Minnesota-Morris
Abstract:
This paper investigates how observation is critical to learning and
provides
strategies for supporting observation in computer science learning.
Observation
is a combination of using the senses to experience an actual event
followed
by reflection of what was experienced. Frequently, observation is not
supported
when course structures fail to encourage reflection that leads to
long-term
integration of new knowledge. There are many opportunities in the
traditional
computer science classroom to rectify this imbalance. A set of
possible approaches
are discussed in this document.
Keywords: observation in learning, computer science, teaching
techniques
1 Approaches to Learning
Just as there are many different kinds of people in the world, there
are many
different approaches to learning. Teachers at every level need to
recognize
the personal nature of learning and should work to support a broad
variety of
approaches to learning. The application of different teaching methods
to support
the various learning styles should be a goal of every educator at
every level
for any subject. With intelligent use of various facilitation
techniques, instructors
may reach a larger and more diverse group of learners.
The focus of this paper is on the facilitation of learner observation
to support
learning. Observation can certainly be a part of learning regardless
of the
teaching techniques used and the learning preferences exhibited by the
student.
However, it is the author's opinion that educators need to recognize
the power
of observation in learning and work to facilitate its use in the
classroom.1.1
Passive versus Active Learning
The current trend in educational circles is to support active
learning techniques,
such as collaboration and 'hands-on' approaches. It is argued that
action on
the part of the learner will increase their interaction with the
subject matter
and aid them by forcing some investment in their own learning
(Bateman, 1990).
In computer science courses, it is common to encounter collaboration
in the
form of team projects (especially in later courses) and various
hands-on approaches
in labs and via programming. Other active learning approaches, such as
service
learning and discussion methods are much less common in CS, but are
nonetheless
potentially useful tools for the CS educator. Innovation in the
facilitation
of active learning is currently a popular field in educational
research and
is certainly worthy of integration into the repertoire of any CS
faculty person's
teaching toolbox.
Passive learning, on the other hand, is quite often seen as the
reading and
lecture portion of classes. Both of these methods are intended to
impart information
to learners and rote memorization is frequently a necessary component
(Bruffee,
1993). Many online tools using multimedia are also highly passive in
approach
since many consist largely of reading text, viewing pictures, or
listening to
audio components. Computer science faculty are frequently at the
forefront of
those using online tools for class notes, tutorials, and other items
to support
learning.
Unfortunately, the nearly exclusive use of reading and lecture by
many instructors
in the past has brought about a backlash against passive learning
methods. This
often leads to attempts by some facilitators to completely forsake
these tools,
which certainly is no better than avoiding active learning approaches
(Eble,
1988). In other cases, it causes instructors to be defensive about
their use
of passive approaches and leads to a polarization between faculty that
does
not benefit the learner. Certainly, there are advantages and
disadvantages to
each teaching technique. It is also quite possible for an instructor
to be effective
or ineffective using any given strategy. Rather than discounting a
technique
or approach entirely, instructors should concern themselves with the
relative
benefits of various teaching approaches. Additionally, teachers should
continuously
challenge themselves to improve the variety and quality of their
instructional
methods.
1.2 Concrete versus Abstract Capabilities
Most learners who are traditional college ages (17-23) are entering a
point
in the maturation process where they can begin to process and learn
from abstractions
(McKeachie, 1980). Of course, each individual will be at a different
point in
this development. In some cases, an individual may be quite willing
and able
to accept general assumptions, models, and axioms and apply them
successfully.
However, most individuals will struggle to some extent unless there
are concrete
examples and situations from which they can learn. Even given concrete
examples,
some people may find it nearly impossible to generalize the concepts
and apply
them to different concrete examples. By the same token, there are
individuals
who can readily accept high-level concepts, but will struggle to apply
them
in a precise situation.
The facilitator of learning must recognize the difficulties some may
have in
crossing between abstractions and applications. There must be
recognition by
computer science educators that models, code fragments, and computing
languages
can be very abstract from the perspective of the learner. Similarly,
full programs
for specific tasks or scenarios can provide concrete examples. To make
matters
more complex, learners (and instructors) do not always recognize the
difference
between an abstraction and an application. This becomes clear when
learners
complain that a test question was unfair, even though the instructor
feels it
is actually a similar problem to one that was covered extensively in
the classroom.
Faculty must work to point out the difference between a specific case
and a
general case. Once this is done, they can facilitate the translation
from one
to the other.
1.3 What do we Mean by Observation?
Taken literally, observation can certainly occur regardless of the
level of
activity or the level of abstraction in a learning event. Certainly,
one could
argue that observation is a part of any learning. After all, a lab
situation
requires the learner to view the problem, interpret it, attempt to
solve it,
and then see how the solution fares. The observation of the success or
failure
of the solution is part of the key to learning concepts in a
laboratory environment.
Similarly, a student in a lecture hall observes by listening to the
instructor,
viewing the notes and other visual aides, and participating in
discussion. These
scenarios certainly seem to fit a traditional sense of what it is to
‘observe.’
However, if we leave our definition of observation here, we leave out
a critical
part of the learning process.
In each of the cases above, observation should be a 'two-part
adventure.' The
first part of the process involves using the senses to watch what is
happening
and experience the event. As was mentioned above, many of us might
consider
this to be the full extent of observation in learning. However,
observation
for learning includes a second step. The learner needs to reflect on
the experience
and determine where the experience belongs in their pool of knowledge.
Thus,
in order to facilitate observation in learning, we must consider ways
that will
both provide a useful experience and promote reflection and
integration of that
experience (Brookfield, 1990; Bruffee, 1993; Eble, 1988).
With this definition in mind, it becomes fairly obvious that
facilitation of
observation will usually require more concrete experiences than
abstractions.
This does not mean that abstraction is ignored. As a matter of fact,
concepts,
applications, and instances of traversals between the two can often be
successfully
'observed.' But, we must recognize that these are still instances of
the more
specific models. It is hoped, by the use of applications in the
experience,
that the learner will be able to integrate the concept (or the
abstraction)
as they reflect on what they have experienced. Further, events that
show the
process and steps from concept to application (and/or vice versa) can
facilitate
successful reflection.
Observation should occur regardless of the level of 'activity' in a
learning
event. However, there are good reasons to consider observation as a
passive
activity. Frequently, a highly active situation will cause the learner
to fail
to see what needs to be seen during the event. Continued activity
tends to dull
the willingness to process and reflect on what has been happening. In
other
words, the activity becomes the focus, rather than the learning. The
result
is that participants become trained in a skill, but have insufficient
understanding
of the reasons behind the process. This makes it increasingly
difficult for
the individual to handle abstractions and exceptions. Teachers need to
work
to encourage moments of observation in every active learning event so
that the
activity might lead to more complete understandings of what has
occurred.
On the other hand, passive events, such as lectures, can certainly be
endured
with a minimum of observation. In these cases, some level of
'activity' can
promote the necessary reflection and integration. For example,
instructors who
provide learners with questions prior to a lecture may find that
learners are
more willing to pay more to the content of the lecture. Regardless of
the level
of activity in the event, the instructor must identify ways that they
can facilitate
the necessary observation that will lead to learning.
1.4 A Revelation Regarding Observation
The ‘trial and error’ methodology is very commonly accepted
in most
European-style educational formats. Many persons who claim to be
kinesthetic
(hands-on) learners who have grown up in this system see ‘trial
and error’
as being the most common approach. In this instance, one tends to
learn by making
mistakes and seeing how these mistakes bring about results that are
not necessarily
those that were anticipated. With this approach, better learning
occurs when
time is taken to view the results and reflect on how those results
differ from
what was expected. This effort brings the learners to a point where
they can
make conjectures as to why things were different and how changes might
bring
about the desired result.
While ‘trial and error’ certainly allows for both phases in
observation,
it does not necessarily mean that every learner will take the time for
the entire
process. Frequently learners simply get frustrated with the results.
When this
occurs they either make ‘knee-jerk’ alterations to the
solution or
they seek a ‘ready-made’ answer (often supplied by an
instructor).
In short, ‘trial and error’ methods tend to encourage
action, but
the focus on observation is often neglected.
Some interesting reading regarding the traditional learning
approaches of many
Native American peoples reveals a different approach to learning that
might
provide an interesting balance to ‘trial and error’ tactics.
In this
scenario, the teacher demonstrates how something can be successfully
completed
while the learner(s) serve as an audience. After observing a number of
repetitions,
the learners reflect on what they have experienced and attempt to
perform the
task on their own (usually with no audience) (Tafoya, 1989). Perhaps
there will
be some ‘trial and error’ at this stage, but the learners do
have
a working model as a basis for their efforts. The advantage of this
approach
is the early focus on the process of observation.
Certainly this approach could be useful in demonstrating both
successful and
unsuccessful concepts and approaches in the computer science
classroom. At the
least, this could encourage and exercise the observation skills of the
participants.
Further, integration of this approach with ‘trial and error’
methods
should provide opportunities for individuals with varying learning
styles to
succeed.
1.5 The Value of Observation in Learning
Rather than provide lengthy descriptions of the advantages for
two-part observation
in learning, it is appropriate to simply provide a list. This gives
more opportunity
to discuss specific strategies in the CS classroom rather than a
larger focus
on theory. As the reader views the strategies for facilitating
observation,
it may be beneficial to reconsider the following as they relate to the
technique.
It is doubtful that many will disagree that each of these can be true
on a philosophical
level. However, consider whether or not events in the classroom, as
they stand
now, fully support these statements.
Valuable learning occurs:
- in seeing and reflecting on (observing) successful processes that
are modeled
by others
- in observing failed processes
- in observing the response to a failed process
- in observing completeness
- in observing repetitions
- in reflection on one’s actions or activity
- in observing comparisons
- in observing decision making processes within a larger concept or
process
- in observing the details of a process or situation
- in observing the impact of a process or event
- in observing the tools of the trade as they are used
2 Teaching Approaches that Facilitate Observational
Learning
Many techniques facilitate observational learning in computer
science. The
following examples are only a small group of ideas used by the author
in CS
classes and are presented here in the hope that others may benefit in
their
use. Some of these ideas have been frequently used by CS/IS faculty
for some
time, others seem to be common sense, and others are a reflection of
the instructor
himself. Of course, each of these examples will have varying levels of
success
depending on the learners, the instructor, and the environment.
Further, faculty
must consider the time and effort required (for themselves and the
students)
in order to make these events work. Before rejecting any of these
approaches
on that basis, one must consider the potential value an event such as
these
might have versus those events that are already planned.
2.1 Full Program Examples
Early in computer science, learners are working to learn a computing
language.
Frequently, the only full program example seen by the learner is an
initial
'Hello World' example in one of the first classes and whatever
examples exist
in the textbook. It is natural for instructors and authors to provide
code fragments,
rather than complete code in order to provide examples for learners.
After all,
it is tedious to write program headers and the like when they are far
from the
point to be made. However, we should not forget the value of viewing
success
and of viewing completeness as a part of observation. The successful
authoring
of a complete, working program by the instructor while learners view
the process
can have a strong impact on many of those learning programming
languages.
When providing full program examples, the instructor should consider
that simply
providing copies of a full program does not suffice. Learners at the
post-secondary
level often have good intentions (though sometimes they don’t) of
reading
materials provided for them, but these materials are infrequently
perused. More
importantly, providing a fully written and completed program deprives
the learner
of the value of viewing the process. There is great strength in
combining process,
completeness, and repetition, which is provided by full program
examples.
Before dismissing this idea as being too time-intensive or as being
unnecessarily
redundant, one must consider the audience. First, learners do not have
the wealth
of experience that the instructor presumably has. Things that the
teacher takes
for granted aren’t necessarily even recognized as important by
the newcomer.
Second, judicious use of full-program examples can provide the
opportunity to
impart new concepts as well as repetitions for already covered, yet
still uncertain,
ones. And, finally, the ultimate goal should be to bring the students
to an
appropriate level of understanding of the topic. Rote memorization of
concepts,
algorithms, and patterns certainly may give the appearance of
understanding,
but it is not a wholly accurate indicator.
2.2 Provision of Working Solutions to Assignments
Projects, assignments, and even exams are often viewed by professors
as activities
with a definite ‘end’. Unfortunately, the result is that
there is
a focus on the initial activity, but no focus is given to the learning
opportunity
that comes after assessment or completion of the event. This
effectively eliminates
the second part of the observation process that is so critical to
long-term
retention of concepts. For example, the student works to memorize for
the exam,
performs their ‘regurgitation’ for the exam, and receives a
score
two weeks after that point. No further discussion or effort is
expended (in
most cases) on these questions or topics so that a better
understanding can
be reached (unless they hope to cajole the instructor into a higher
score).
A large part of this attitude comes from the feeling brought to the
classroom
that one must always be moving forward in the topic material. But, how
can learners
be expected to move forward when key concepts are misunderstood?
An excellent method for encouraging observation is to provide
learners with
solutions to exercises, projects, and exams. Once again, we must
recognize that
reading handout material may not be the best solution. It is often
more beneficial
to start the process in the classroom with a period of time to review
the event.
The instructor usually is aware of those concepts and issues that
caused the
most trouble and can isolate those most likely to help a majority of
the students.
Further, identification of the most common mistakes can allow the
teacher to
illustrate the error and provide solutions that work by modifying the
solution
that was in error. This provides the learner with an opportunity to
view the
process of turning a ‘failure’ into a ‘success.’
Certainly,
this is a valuable lesson for any person involved in computing.
There are, of course, some issues that would cause instructors to
choose to
avoid this approach. First, there is the assumption that evaluation
can occur
quickly so that assessment information can be used to select
appropriate subjects
to discuss. This may not necessarily have to be the case, however,
since experienced
instructors often have a sense for what has caused problems in the
past. Second,
there are problems with providing full answers to students. These
assignments
can’t readily be reused in future classes. However, teachers need
to remember
that the primary goal is successful learning, rather than easy grading
or assignment
development. The difficulties brought about by providing an
opportunity to reflect
on graded events are actually quite small as compared to the potential
learning
value.
2.3 'Playing Computer'
The event of fast compilers and near immediate feedback regarding a
program’s
workability has removed some of the motivation to walk through a
solution prior
to implementing. When CPU time cost the student money, learners found
themselves
spending a great deal of time tracing and re-tracing their solutions
prior to
submitting them for compilation and running. While it is certainly
beneficial
that learners have unlimited CPU time and speedy compiling and testing
tools,
they should still be given the opportunity and motivation to see and
use tracing
and walkthroughs of algorithms and code.
An instructor can provide opportunities to illustrate the workings of
a solution
by walking through solutions and code manually. They can supplement
this approach
by encouraging and demonstrating the use of debuggers to follow code
as it executes.
And, while this certainly sounds like a tool for earlier courses in a
CS program,
the instructor should also model its use in later courses to
illustrate the
power code and solution tracing can have. This approach provides
learners with
a demonstration of a strategy or process for working through computing
problems
that can be quite valuable.
2.4 Debugging
The process of debugging is usually one that is taught nearly
entirely by ‘trial
and error’ processes in laboratories and in projects. Perhaps
learners
are given a quick tour of the programming environment at the beginning
of their
first class, or they are provided with an introduction to basic
compiler errors.
However, learners are often more successful in debugging if they are
given the
chance to see successful debugging strategies in action. Usually, this
process
has greater impact if it occurs after students have had a chance to
experience
the frustration of debugging themselves. Because they now have a good
reason
to seek out successful strategies, they will view and integrate them
quickly
as they are modeled by the instructor.
An excellent method of promoting debugging strategies early in the CS
program
is to gather code written by learners that does not compile or run
correctly.
These files can be used to demonstrate how one can look for problems
in the
code. This approach increases the feeling of ownership in the learners
and may
increase their desire to observe successful techniques. Later in CS
programs,
we should not ignore chances to share or reiterate useful debugging
approaches.
Instructors must remember that learners have to be at a point where
they are
ready to learn new concepts. Frequently, learners simply are not ready
the first
time it is presented. A second presentation, at a later point in time,
my find
them quite ready to accept and integrate what they experience. In
other words,
instructors should not view debugging as a ‘unit’ to be
covered. Instead,
debugging should be modeled, discussed, and viewed throughout larger
topics.
This approach certainly costs the instructor class time and
preparation time.
However, consider the large amount of time commonly devoted to
individual debugging
sessions in nearly every CS class. It stands to reason that faculty
will benefit
from a concerted effort to make debugging techniques part of their
focus. This
should encourage observation from the standpoint that it supports the
process
of experiencing and integrating tools for us in computer science. This
approach
models both process and success in response to failure.
2.5 Developing and Implementing Test Plans
As an instructor, we certainly speak of testing code and verbally
encourage
it in our students. However, testing is frequently viewed as tiresome,
irritating,
and less creative than the more development oriented portions of our
projects.
As a result, instructors and students tend to do very little real
testing. Certainly,
faculty members are well aware of what a good set of tests might be
for a given
piece of code. But we forget that learners do not have this
experience. Naturally,
they will consider one set of test data to be sufficient. If it runs
successfully,
they feel that the project is complete and no more effort is
required.
Testing and planning for testing can be one of the areas in CS that
strongly
supports observation for learning. The testing process provides the
learner
with a chance to consider what it is that will determine if a solution
is working
or not. They must take the time to reflect on the problem and its
limitations,
so that they can select appropriate tests. Further, they are given the
chance
to move away from active development so that they can observe how
their solution
interacts with the data given. Once they have viewed the results, they
must
determine whether the results are appropriate and how things should be
altered
to get better results. This is the step in ‘trial and error’
processes
that is necessary in order to encourage two-part observation.
There are a number of approaches that can be used to encourage
testing and
test plans. First, the instructor should model testing for learners
frequently.
If the professor is illustrating a new algorithm for the class, he/she
should
take the time to demonstrate how the algorithm performs in boundary
cases (for
example). If demonstration code is provided, time should be taken to
walk through
a test set to show correctness (and maybe even failure) of the code.
At the
very least, a test plan, test suite or set of tests might be provided
so that
learners can be exposed to them. Learners can then be asked to
determine why
each test was included in the plan. This encourages actual reflection
and integration
rather than blind acceptance of listed procedures.
Learners can also be encouraged to test by requiring a test plan and
set of
test results for each project and/or laboratory exercise. By making
the process
a required part of the event, students become familiar with its
inclusion. Further,
inclusion of these test sets can also provide the instructor with more
resources
for evaluating the work of the learner.
2.6 Making Mistakes Into a Valuable Resource
Professors should be viewed as being competent in their field.
However, we
should not make the mistake of perpetuating the myth that we are
infallible.
Instructors who make mistakes in the classroom should not work to
cover them
up. Instead, they should recognize the value in turning the situation
into a
learning opportunity. It is not suggested here that faculty should
make mistakes
continuously. After all, it is valuable for a learner to observe
success. Instead,
the suggestion is that failure, and our reaction to it, can be every
bit as
useful for the learner to observe as success.
Providing oneself with the opportunity to make mistakes may sound a
little
ridiculous and even a bit scary. However, we should consider that
professors
certainly should be comfortable with their topic and they should be
quite capable
of responding to and correcting errors. Rather than entering the
classroom with
everything worked out prior to the event, there are times when it is
more useful
to enter the classroom with only the problem in mind, but no solution.
The process
of working to a solution can then be displayed for the learners in
such a way
that they can observe how the instructor handles adversity in the
process. As
the teacher works through the problem, they should clearly demonstrate
what
they are doing and why they are doing it. If a problem is encountered,
they
should indicate how they discovered the problem and why it is a
problem. At
that point, they can show how they will deal with the situation.
This approach is often very enlightening to both faculty and
students. Not
only does it provide learners with a chance to observe the processes
used by
an experienced individual, it also gives the instructor a chance to
consider
the problems of a student. Learners remain under the shadow of
constant evaluation
of their work and we often fail to recognize the very real stress this
puts
on the individual. On the other hand, performing work in front of a
live audience
can certainly remind one of the stress of problem solving for the
benefit of
others!
Another valid approach is to purposefully make mistakes so that the
error can
be demonstrated and solutions presented. In this case, it is usually
best to
be clear that you are intending to make mistakes and that the focus is
on what
can go wrong and how it can be corrected. If one includes an
intentional mistake
without forewarning the students, it will often backfire since
students become
unsure as to the agenda being pursued by the instructor. Announcing an
intentional
error after the fact is rarely taken well. On the other hand,
unintentional
errors provide learners with a chance to see how mistakes can be made
into useful
learning experiences.
2.7 Peer Interaction
Interaction and collaboration are excellent methods of supporting
observation
in learning. The simple camaraderie felt by those placed in the
situation of
dealing with a common problem tends to promote sharing of perspectives
and opinions
that can lead to a better understanding of the task and the concepts
behind
it. The effort of successfully conversing about the topic requires
participants
to sharpen their own observation skills. Sometimes one learner can
model or
tutor for another student. In other situations, the learners use team
efforts
to attempt the task at hand. Regardless of the situation, the
interaction encourages
observation because communication requires that the students attain
certain
levels of understanding in order to converse on the problem topic. In
short,
peer interaction supports observation by giving learners an ulterior
motive
to incorporate observation into their learning.
Instructors can support peer interaction by providing paired projects
and team
projects. Similarly, teachers can encourage and facilitate peer
tutoring and
study groups. By encouraging students to accept learning efforts as a
part of
a community effort, it is possible that individuals will begin to
accept that
observation and learning can occur practically anywhere at any
time.
2.8 Stump the Teacher
Providing a new twist to the classroom usually gets the attention of
students.
In this case, the instructor challenges the students to find questions
about
the subject that might stump him or her. For example, a second term
programming
class was challenged to come up with a single-task recursion problem
that the
instructor could not solve in the class. In this case, the class was
given a
day to try to come up with problems (either individually or as a
group). The
day of the challenge was extremely successful as the teacher worked
with these
problems while the learners observed the process. Learners were asked
to take
time after the class to write down strategies used by the teacher in
solving
the problems presented. Many learners expressed favorable opinions of
this event.
Obviously, this event requires that learners provide sufficient
problems for
this to work. Further, there are certainly individuals who will hunt
down unsolvable
or inappropriate problems for the class. Even so, the instructor must
be prepared
to discuss how the problem can be approached and why it can’t be
done in
entirely in that class. The second difficulty is that the instructor
places
his or her ego on the line and surrenders some control of the
classroom to the
students. The teacher must be ready to admit defeat while illustrating
approaches
to solving the problem. Further, it is important that careful
guidelines for
problem selection be given so that there is a higher likelihood that
the event
will succeed.
2.9 Open-Ended Questions
Computer science, with its strong mathematical background, tends to
often lend
itself to short, close-ended questions. Program syntax is either right
or it
is wrong. Algorithms either find the correct solution or they do not.
The more
heavily mathematical background of many faculty tends to make them
much more
comfortable with these types of questions. Further, it is far easier
to assess
the response to such questions than it is to assess responses to an
open-ended
question. However, there is also a great deal of flexibility within
the structure
of computer science. An algorithm may be written more than one way in
order
to produce correct answers. Databases may be optimized different ways
in order
to promote efficiency. Large project designs may be implemented any
number of
ways, each having different sets of pros and cons. In other words,
there is
a need for the CS student to develop skills in determining which
solutions are
best for a given situation. These skills lend themselves to open-ended
questions.
The open-ended question also promotes observation in learning. If a
learner
is asked to optimize a database using a prescribed set of steps with
very few
options, they have no reason to really observe what is happening.
Instead, they
simply look at the ‘cook book’ and follow the
‘recipe’ in
hopes that the correct solution will appear at the end. On the other
hand, learners
could be asked to optimize the same database and explain why
they think
it is now optimized. Or, if they were encouraged to give reasons for
the changes
they make, they are more likely to ‘step back’ from the
process and
reflect and integrate this knowledge. Once the ‘why’ is
merged with
the ‘how’, both become easier to remember and the task is
more likely
to be performed adequately in the future.
Another use of open-ended questions is to supply questions at the
beginning
of a lecture section that ask students to formulate opinions about
topics covered
in the lecture. For example, a class covering various shortest path
algorithms
may include questions centering around when one might select one
algorithm over
a different one. In this case, it is often best for the lecturer to
avoid giving
these reasons in the lecture. Instead, they should ask for feedback
from the
learners in an effort increase the activity in an otherwise passive
event. Adding
this activity encourages active listening, which, in turn, facilitates
observation
in learning.
2.10 Internships & Apprenticeships
The apprenticeship approach of years past relied heavily on the
concept of
using observation in learning. Often, the apprentice was merely
required to
be around the skilled craftsman while the craftsman did his or her
work. Of
course, the apprentice was required to do many menial tasks during
that time.
However, the exposure to the successful use of the tools, the process,
the problems,
and the potential solution strategies provided the learner with a
chance to
integrate that information into their own knowledge base. As the level
of comfort
grows, the apprentice begins to attempt hands-on work and learn by
trial and
error. Failed attempts often led to further demonstrations by the
expert as
the apprentice watched.
Students may find great value in internships related to their field
of study.
These arrangements provide the learner with an opportunity to observe
that is
valuable to their future learning in the classroom. An internship can
provide
them with a more complete picture of what is necessary to function in
the field.
At the very least, an internship can clarify purpose and provide
motivation
for learners as they continue through the CS program.
3. Conclusion
Instructors of computer science classes at the post-secondary level
can certainly
aid learning by promoting the use of both phases of observation in the
classroom.
Many of the strategies discussed here are likely to be similar or very
close
to techniques used by many instructors. However, we must consider
whether or
not we take each strategy as far as it needs to go in order to promote
observation
for learning. Even highly successful educators discover that their
techniques
require adjustments and alterations over time. It is hoped that this
paper will
challenge readers to critically evaluate teaching events in their
classroom
and alter them to better support the learner.
References
Allan, J. (1997). Learning outcomes in higher education, FT
Magazine: Studies
in Higher Education, 21, (1), 245+.
Bateman, W.L. (1990). Open to question: The art of teaching and
learning
by inquiry. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Brookfield, S. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective
teacher. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Brookfield, S.D. (1990). The skillful teacher: On technique,
trust, and
responsiveness in the classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bruffee, K. (1993). Collaborative learning: Higher education,
interdependence,
and the authority of knowledge. The Johns Hopkins University
Press.
Eble, K. (1988). The craft of teaching: A guide to mastering the
professor’s
art (2nd ed). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
McKeachie, W. (Ed.). (1980). Learning, cognition and college
teaching.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Tafoya, T. (1989). Coyote’s eyes: Native cognition styles.
Journal
of American Indian Education, Special Issue, 29-41.
Rob Faux has taught computer science in both traditional university
settings
and on-line, distance-learning environments. His interests include
computer
science education, fuzzy logic, algorithms and data structures, and
expert systems.
Rob has been a member of ACM's SIGCSE and a reviewer for IEEE's
Transactions
on Education. He enjoys spending active time playing softball,
volleyball, or
racquetball, and gardening. Less active time is spent working with his
postal
history and stamp collection.
Contact
Computer Science Department
University of Minnesota, Morris
Morris, Minnesota 56267
fauxr@mrs.umn.edu
http://mrs.umn.edu/~fauxr/
* Reprinted with permission from:
Faux, R. (2001). The role of observation in computer science learning.
In Proceedings
of the 34th Annual Midwest Instruction and Computing Symposium.
Available:
http://www.cns.uni.edu/~fienup/mics_2001/MICS2001_Proceedings/papers/faux2.pdf
Copyright 2001 by the Midwest Instruction and Computing Symposium.
Permission
to make printed or digital copies of all or part of this material for
educational
or personal use is granted without fee provided that copies are not
made or
distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies include
this
notice and the full citation on the first page.
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