Home PublicationsJRTEPast IssuesVolume 26 Number 2

Edited by Dennis W. Spuck and William C. Bozeman

formerly Journal of Research on Computing in Education

Volume 26 Number 2 -- Winter 1993-1994

Table of Contents

An Expert System for Evaluating Exams: A Case Study

Arie Ben-David and Uri Ben-Shalom.........................143



Mental Models and Transfer of Learning in Computer 

Programming

Yu-Fen Shih and Stephen M. Alessi.........................154

  

Gender Effects of Graphics Presentation

Jacqueline N. Hood and Dennis F. Togo.....................176



Human-Supplied Versus Computer-Supplied Feedback: An 

Empirical and Pragmatic Study

Marvin J. Croy, James R. Cook, and Michael G. Green.......185



The Reduction of Computer Anxiety: Its Relation to Relaxation 

Training, Previous Computer Coursework, Achievement, and Need 

for Cognition

Matthew M. Maurer and Michael R. Simonson.................205



Computers and Teachers: Factors Influencing Computer Use in 

the Classroom

Henryk R. Marcinkiewicz...................................220



Increasing Student Control Through an Expert System: An 

Academic Accounting Innovation and Field Test

Timothy J. Fogarty and Paul M. Goldwater..................238



Attitudes Toward Computers and Computer Use: The Issue of 

Gender

Colin H. Sacks, Yolanda Bellisimo, and John Mergendoller..256



Understanding and Evaluating Measures of Computer Ability: 

Making a Case for an Alternative Metric

Robin H. Kay..............................................270



Book Review--Education and Informatics Worldwide: The State 

of the Art and Beyond

edited by Jacques Hebenstreit et al.

Reviewed by Helen Oliver..................................285



                      Abstracts



An Expert System for Evaluating Exams: A Case Study



Arie Ben-David

The Hebrew University of Jerusalem



Uri Ben-Shalom

Israeli Ministry of Education



Abstract

In order to simplify the formal evaluation procedures for 

matriculation examination forms proposed by high school 

teachers in Israel, an expert system was constructed. The 

system serves both the examination authors and the 

evaluators. Consequently, both sides are familiar with the 

tradeoffs involved in using the expert system without having 

to resort to lengthy explanations or complex guidebooks. 

Because many evaluators were involved in the process, 

conventional knowledge-engineering methods were found to be 

inadequate. Instead, a learning-by-example paradigm called 

the Ordinal Learning Model was utilized. Responses from the 

systemÕs users during a two-year beta test has been very 

encouraging. 




Mental Models and Transfer of Learning in Computer 

Programming



Yu-Fen Shih

Ming Chung College 



Stephen M. Alessi

The University of Iowa



Abstract

Learning and transfer of procedural skills was measured as a 

function of conceptual understanding (subjectsÕ mental 

models) induced by conceptual models in the form of computer 

graphics and animation during computer-based instruction. 

Three groups of nonprogrammers learned and practiced either 

code evaluation, code evaluation with the aid of conceptual 

models, or code generation. Practicing code evaluation with 

conceptual models was found to facilitate conceptual 

understanding, learning of code evaluation, and transfer to 

code generation. A positive relationship was found between 

the quality of subjectsÕ mental models and transfer ability, 

regardless of the experimental condition. The findings 

suggest that both number of shared productions and level of 

declarative knowledge are developed during practice and that 

transfer is a function of both. In practical terms, 

conceptual methods of instruction fostering appropriate 

mental models are suggested for cognitive skill learning. The 

instructional materials demonstrate methods by which computer 

graphics and animation may stimulate the formation of 

appropriate mental models. 





Gender Effects of Graphics Presentation



Jacqueline N. Hood and Dennis F. Togo

University of New Mexico



Abstract

This study examined the effects of presentation format on 

performance on mathematical test items for 114 accounting 

students. The characteristic of gender was believed to have a 

moderating effect on performance on these test items. 

Students were assigned either a graphical or a tabular format 

on four sets of data. Results indicated that males performed 

better than females, and individuals receiving the tabular 

format outperformed those receiving the graphics format. 

Presentation format must be considered in determining 

appropriate mathematical testing to prevent bias due to 

individual differences. 





Human-Supplied Versus Computer-Supplied Feedback: An 

Empirical and Pragmatic Study



Marvin J. Croy, James R. Cook, and Michael G. Green

The University of North Carolina at Charlotte



Abstract

Twenty-nine students in a deductive logic course were studied 

in order to compare two forms of diagnostic feedback that 

accompanied the use of CAI programs. One form of feedback was 

delivered in special meetings between student and instructor 

and a second form of feedback was delivered by the CAI 

programs. The content of the feedback was determined by the 

instructor in both cases. A within-groups experimental design 

was used. Students were divided into two groups, and each 

group received each form of feedback during different stages 

of the course. The main dependent measures included exam 

performance, class attendance and responsiveness, and 

attitudes toward the instructor, computers, other students, 

and the course. The results show that there was some 

advantage to instructor-supplied feedback as opposed to 

computer-supplied feedback during the most difficult phase of 

the course with respect to exam performance, class 

responsiveness, and student attitudes toward the instructor 

and other students. No significant differences were found 

with respect to class attendance or student attitudes toward 

computers or the course itself. 





The Reduction of Computer Anxiety: Its Relation to Relaxation 

Training, Previous Computer Coursework, Achievement, and Need 

for Cognition



Matthew M. Maurer

Butler University



Michael R. Simonson

Iowa State University



Abstract

This study examined computer anxiety and its relationship to 

four areas: previous computer coursework, relaxation 

exercises, achievement in a computer course, and need for 

cognition, which is a personality variable. Subjects were 

college students in a semester-long introductory computer 

course that was part of a teacher preparation program. 

Computer anxiety was measured three times during the course 

using the Computer Anxiety Index. The relaxation treatment 

was a published muscle relaxation technique. Achievement was 

assessed using final lab and lecture grades assigned in the 

class. Need for cognition was measured using the Need for 

Cognition Scale, which was administered during the second 

week of the class. The course was effective in reducing 

computer anxiety in the last half of the semester. The 

relaxation treatment was not found to be effective in 

reducing computer anxiety. It was found that course grades 

were more strongly related to postcourse computer anxiety 

than to precourse computer anxiety. A weak but significant 

relationship was also found between need for cognition and 

reduction of computer anxiety. 




Computers and Teachers: Factors Influencing Computer Use in 

the Classroom



Henryk R. Marcinkiewicz

University of South Dakota



Abstract

This study examined the predictiveness of several personal 

variables of elementary school teachers to their use of 

available computers for teaching (N = 170). Teachers from 

four schools completed questionnaires that assessed for three 

levels of computer use, innovativeness, teacher locus of 

control, perceived relevance of computers to teaching, and 

self-confidence in the use of computers. Additionally, data 

on age, gender, and years of computer experience were 

collected. Logistic regression procedures were used to 

analyze the relationships between teacher characteristics and 

computer use. About half of the sample of teachers in this 

study reported not using computers for teaching. Self-

competence and innovativeness were most closely related to 

teachersÕ computer use. The results suggest that these 

variables need to be considered when planning training 

intervention or differential staffing for reconciling 

teachers and their computer use. 





Increasing Student Control Through an Expert System: An 

Academic Accounting Innovation and Field Test



Timothy J. Fogarty

Case Western Reserve University



Paul M. Goldwater

University of Central Florida



Abstract

Several research innovations in accounting education 

illustrate the potential benefits of increased student 

control. Expert systems offer the potential to accomplish a 

transfer of control to students. A field test of such an 

innovation revealed that student control could be enhanced 

without undesirable results. Students who were given the 

ability to control their study and their assessment were 

unable to inflate their grades beyond that which can be 

associated with increased effort. Students with more 

convenient access to the computer hardware necessary to run 

the expert system did not perform better. 




Attitudes Toward Computers and Computer Use: The Issue of 

Gender



Colin H. Sacks, Yolanda Bellisimo, 

and John Mergendoller

Beryl Buck Institute for Education



Abstract

The present study examined the relationship between 

alternative high school studentsÕ attitudes toward computers 

and computer use over a four-month period. StudentsÕ 

experience with computers was minimal at the onset of the 

study. Computers were used primarily for word processing, and 

computer use was tracked using an internal tracking system. 

Results revealed that girlsÕ attitudes toward computers 

improved over the course of the study while boysÕ attitudes 

did not. However, there were no overall gender differences in 

actual computer use, nor did computer use increase across the 

course of the study. Results also revealed that boysÕ 

attitudes toward computers and actual computer use were 

relatively unrelated, while girlsÕ attitudes toward computers 

and actual computer use converged across the course of the 

study. Finally, results revealed that boysÕ attitudes and 

behaviors toward computers were relatively stable, with 

strong pretest/posttest correlations, while girlsÕ attitudes 

and behaviors were not stable. Results are discussed in terms 

of the different attitudes and behavioral expectancies boys 

and girls bring to their initial encounters with computer 

technology. 





Understanding and Evaluating Measures of Computer Ability: 

Making a Case for an Alternative Metric



Robin H. Kay

University of Toronto



Abstract

Most researchers and educators evaluating computer ability or 

literacy have used a construct approach. A prototypical 

measure assesses programming ability, application software 

skill, and computer awareness. This kind of measure is often 

viewed as a final product rather than as a pedagogical tool. 

In this article, it is argued that the fundamental basis of 

computer ability measures should be altered in order to 

address a rapidly evolving computer software market and take 

advantage of significant advances made in instruction and 

cognitive science. A more fundamentally useful metric of 

computer ability can be developed using a process-oriented 

methodology. This new metric, comprised of actual learning 

activities, helps provide a comprehensive and coherent 

understanding of how a person interacts with a computer. 

Metaphors and constraints based on an extensive core of 

intelligence assessment research are used to illustrate how 

theorists have looked at computer ability and to provide 

guidelines for developing more useful ability measures. A 

microgenetic approach is offered as one promising example of 

a process-oriented method that could produce a richer metric 

of computer ability for researchers and educators. 




Education and Informatics Worldwide: The State of the Art and 

Beyond



by Jacques Hebenstreit et al.



UNESCO/Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 1992

Hard cover, 253 pages, ISBN 1-85302-089-3



Reviewed by Helen Oliver



BOOK REVIEW

A PDF file of each full article is available. Contact: jrte@iste.org. Please specifiy Volume and Issue number and article name.

Copyright © 1993, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education). All rights reserved.