Home PublicationsJRTEPast IssuesVolume 28 Number 3

Edited by Dennis W. Spuck and William C. Bozeman

formerly Journal of Research on Computing in Education

Volume 28 Number 3 -- Spring 1996

Table of Contents

The Effects of Content Structure Focusing on Learner

Structural Knowledge Acquisition, Retention, and

Disorientation in a Hypermedia Environment

Robert E. Beasley and Michael E. Waugh.....................271



The Equivalence of Paper-and-Pencil and Computer-Based Testing

Alan C. Bugbee, Jr. .......................................282



Correlates Among Teachers' Anxieties, Demographics, and 

Telecomputing Activity

Judith B. Harris and Neal Grandgenett......................300



Teacher Teams and Computer Technology:

Do Combined Strategies Maximize Student Achievement?

Jeffrey B. Hecht, Nicole K. Roberts, and Perry L. Schoon...318



Networked Instructional Computers in the Elementary Classroom

and Their Effect on the Learning Environment: A Qualitative

Evaluation

Carolyn M. Keeler..........................................329



Effects of a Cross-Age Tutoring Prgoram on Computer Literacy

Learning of Second-Grade Students

Florence M. Newell.........................................346



The Effect of Computer Animation on Students' Understanding

of Microbiology

Craig Nicholls, Susan Merkel, and Marica Cordts............359



The Use of ITS Techniques in Research on Pairing Presentations

Baruch Schwarz and Nurit Zehavel...........................372



An Experimental Study of Animation, Mathematics Achievement,

and Attitude Toward Computer-Assisted Instruction

Michael Szabo and Brent Poohkay...........................390



Using Computer-Managed Instructional Software to Increase

Motivation and Achievement in Elementary School Children

Steve Terrall and Paul Rendulic...........................403



                           Abstracts



The Effects of Content-Structure Focusing on  Learner

Structural Knowledge Acquisition, Retention, and Disorientation

in a Hypermedia Environment



Robert E. Beasley

Union College



Michael L. Waugh

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign



Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 

hypermedia content-structure focusing on learnersÕ structural 

knowledge acquisition, retention, and disorientation. Sixty-one 

students volunteered to participate in the study. A Completely 

Randomized Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) design 

with two groups of participants was used to test all hypotheses. 

The results of the study suggest that, when a learnerÕs attention 

is at least partially focused on the structural aspects of a 

hypermedia lesson, hypermedia disorientation will decrease and 

structural knowledge acquisition and retention will increase. 

Rationale for these findings are provided, and the implications 

for hypermedia design are discussed. 







The Equivalence of Paper-and-Pencil and Computer-Based Testing



Alan C. Bugbee, Jr.

The American College



Abstract 

In recent years, there has been increased interest in

converting from paper-and-pencil to computer-based tests. 

As more and more organizations consider converting from 

paper-and-pencil tests to computer-administered ones, the 

importance of such research increases dramatically. This 

article examines the research showing the equivalence of 

paper-and-pencilÐadministered tests and computer-administered 

tests, especially when the computer-administered test is 

exactly the same as the paper-and-pencil test. Four different 

categories of research on testing by computer are examined: 

previous reviews of research, standards and guidelines for

computerized testing, individual research studies, and studies 

about computerized testing over time. From this review, a 

number of general conclusions about testing by computer are 

reached: (a) it can be equivalent to a paper-and-pencil test, 

but it is the responsibility of the test developer to prove 

that it is; (b) this equivalence is established by meeting 

stringent criteria; (c) computers affect testing; (d) special 

considerations are necessary when computers are used for tests; 

and (e) test users must have at least a basic understanding of 

the computer and its vicissitudes, in conjunction with a 

knowledge of the psychometric properties of the test, to 

effectively use computer testing. 





Correlates Among TeachersÕ Anxieties, Demographics, and 

Telecomputing Activity



Judith B. Harris 

University of Texas at Austin



Neal Grandgenett 

University of Nebraska at Omaha



Abstract

Are educatorsÕ anxiety levels or demographics related to their 

voluntary use of networked resources? In this study, one year

of logins and online time for 189 randomly selected educators 

with accounts on Tenet (Texas Education Network) were 

correlated with six interval-level subject attribute variables:

(a) writing apprehension, (b) oral communication apprehension, 

(c) computer anxiety, (d) age, (e) teaching experience, and 

(f) telecomputing experience. The usage data were also 

correlated with three nominal-level subject attribute variables: 

(a) gender, (b) professional specialty, and (c) teaching level. 

Results indicated that writing apprehension was significantly 

and negatively correlated with network use, and that 

telecomputing experience and online time were significantly and 

positively correlated. No other subject attribute variables were 

found to be correlated with logins or time spent online. These 

results, and the lack of significant relationships for computer 

anxiety and oral communication apprehension, lead the authors to 

suggest that writing apprehension be addressed within the 

contexts of initial telecomputing training, and increased 

access to telecommunications tools be made available as 

usersÕ online experience increases. 




Teacher Teams and Computer Technology: Do Combined Strategies 

Maximize Student Achievement?



Jeffrey B. Hecht

Illinois State University



Nicole K. Roberts

University of Illinois



Perry L. Schoon

Illinois State University



Abstract

Educational innovation occurs in many different ways. One 

approach uses computer technologies to enhance the learning 

environment, while another restructures how teachers work 

with each other and their students. This research used three 

groups in a quasi-experimental approach to assess the combined 

impact of teacher teaming and computer technology on student 

grade point averages. The results show that students in the 

team-taught group achieved higher GPAs than both the traditional 

school group and the group having both teacher teams and computer 

technology. Interviews with participating teachers uncovered 

impediments to the application of the computer technology. 






Networked Instructional 

Computers in the Elementary Classroom and Their Effect 

on the Learning Environment: 

A Qualitative Evaluation



Carolyn M. Keeler

University of Idaho, Boise Center



Abstract

This article reports the results of a qualitative evaluation 

of a school-wide computer implementation project. Factors 

that emerged from the research were used in the planning 

phase of the project and resulted in successful implementation. 

Methods used in the evaluation include project director, 

principal, and teacher interviews; student attitude 

questionnaires; and a parent attitude survey. Results support 

the theory of positive attitude changes among teachers, 

students, and parents when implementation is planned and 

includes representatives of each group. Indications of how 

computers changed the learning environment, structure of the 

classrooms, and teacherÕs role are supported by direct quotes 

from teachers. Also included is a model for creating a 

community of learners through the implementation of computers. 






Effects of a Cross-Age Tutoring Program On Computer Literacy 

Learning of Second-Grade Students



Florence M. Newell

University of Cincinnati



Abstract

This study examined the effects of a cross-age tutoring 

program on computer literacy learning of second graders. The 

tutoring program consisted of 3 training sessions, 10 weekly 

30-min tutoring sessions, and 3 support conferences. Seventeen 

fourth-grade students tutored seventeen second graders on three 

computer programs: a keyboarding program, a problem-solving 

program, and a word processing program. Observations of the 

second-grade tutees were conducted before and after the tutoring 

program to determine the effects of the tutoring program on 

their computer literacy learning. The results indicated that 

prior to the tutoring, five second graders could play a game, 

and three of them could use a simulation program. The 

observations following the program indicated that all 17 tutees 

could use and interact with the programs presented, a game, and 

a simulation program. 





The Effect of Computer 

Animation on StudentsÕ Understanding of Microbiology



Craig Nicholls, Susan Merkel, and Marcia Cordts

Cornell University



Abstract

Four studies (one experimental and three comparative) were 

conducted to assess the instructional effectiveness of three 

separate animated computer tutorials illustrating dynamic 

processes in microbiology. Forty-four university students in 

an introductory microbiology class randomly viewed either an 

animated tutorial on the nitrogen cycle or a comparable textual 

handout with still diagrams. Results indicated a significant 

advantage for subjects in the animated condition. However, a 

possible confounding variable was identified, reducing the 

number of cases that could be analyzed with confidence. The 

tutorial used in the experiment was then made available to the 

entire class of 206 students for general voluntary viewing. It 

was used later in the course modules on immunology and HIV and 

AIDS. Students who viewed each tutorial were compared on 

specific exam questions to students who did not view the 

tutorial, using prior and current exam scores (excluding 

the target questions) as control variables. Results indicated 

a significant advantage for students viewing the nitrogen 

tutorial. Results for the immunology and HIV and AIDS 

tutorials were mixed; viewers scored significantly higher 

than nonviewers on some targeted exam questions but not on 

others. 



The Use of ITS Techniques 

in Research on Pairing Representations



Baruch Schwarz

Hebrew University, Israel



Nurit Zehavi

Weizmann Institute, Israel



Abstract

Pairing external representations of the same concept is 

ubiquitous in educational software. A study integrating 

cognitive research and development of an Intelligent Tutoring 

System (ITS) was undertaken to evaluate the effects of pairing 

representations of mathematical functions on high school 

students. The study consisted of (a) the administration of a 

questionnaire (N = 200) for assessing knowledge of properties 

of functions displayed separately in graphical and algebraic 

representations; and (b) a clinical study showing the 

effectiveness of pairing as an instructional action; (c) the 

development of an ITS, the Function Characteristics Tutor 

(FCT), for learning function characteristics by comparing (a 

special case of pairing) representations; (d) an experiment 

(N = 60) in which students solved tasks with FCT. Overall 

results show that comparing graphical and algebraic 

representations is efficient in learning important function 

characteristics, not only when the two representations refer 

to the same object, but mainly when they refer to different 

objects. FCT reproduced these results, and its degree of 

efficiency measured the cognitive interpretation drawn from 

the interviews and the questionnaire. 





An Experimental Study of Animation, Mathematics Achievement, 

and Attitude Toward Computer-Assisted Instruction



Michael Szabo and Brent Poohkay

University of Alberta



Abstract

Animation has been used in instruction for many years. 

However, recent advances permit the creation of desktop 

animations by a wider range of instructors. In order to 

understand the effects of animation on student learning and 

student reaction to it, an experimental study was conducted. 

A one-hour lesson on the 10th-grade mathematics topic of 

construction of triangles using a compass was developed in 

three instructional formats: (a) text only, (b) text plus 

static graphics, and (c) text plus animation. One hundred 

seventy four undergraduate elementary education majors were 

divided into high and low math achievement levels based on a 

pretest and randomly assigned to one of the three instructional 

groups. On a test designed to measure ability to construct 

triangles and identify trigonometric concepts, the animation 

group scored 21% and 35% higher than the graphics and text 

group, respectively. The graphics group scored higher than 

the text-only group. Attitude toward learning from CAI was 

equivalent for the animation and graphics group and was higher 

than for the text-only group. It is concluded that when 

animation is used to present content and is directly related 

to the objectives of learning, substantial gains in learning 

are possible, and students like it better than textual 

presentations. 



Using Computer-Managed Instructional Software to Increase 

Motivation and Achievement in Elementary School Children 



Steve Terrell

Nova Southeastern University



Paul Rendulic

Florida International University



Abstract

This study provides evidence that the use of computer-

managed instructional (CMI) feedback can have a positive

effect on student motivation and achievement. An experimental 

research study, based on the Cognitive Evaluation TheoryÕs 

proposition that extrinsic, informational feedback will result 

in higher levels of achievement, compared two groups of 

students. One of the groups received computer-generated, 

graphical grade feedback for 27 weeks, while the other received 

traditional achievement feedback. In this study, the group 

receiving the computer-generated feedback showed a significant 

increase in intrinsic motivation and achievement, thereby 

supporting the theory and demonstrating the efficacy of CMI 

in a heretofore untested manner. 

A PDF file of each full article is available. Contact: jrte@iste.org. Please specifiy Volume and Issue number and article name.

Copyright © 1996, ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education). All rights reserved.