|
![[Footsteps]](/Images/publications/LL/27/5/06r/ruffinilead.jpg)
|
Do It
Step-by-Step
A
Systematic Approach
to Designing Multimedia Projects
By Michael F. Ruffini
|
 Download
the full article (PDF, 343 KB, PDF
Instructions)
Multimedia programs are interactive, are student
centered, and motivate students to engage in higher-order
thinking.
A step-by-step approach to project design can result in
effective
multimedia projects. This article guides teachers in
developing
multimedia projects using a systems approach.
It
has been my experience in teaching multimedia authoring to
undergraduate
students and teachers that a model is essential in guiding
the project
design process. In the process described here, the
elements are
arranged sequentially. The intent is to convey an order of
steps
necessary to ensure a comprehensive and high-quality
product. Using
a model prevents frustration and makes efficient and
productive
use of time in creating projects from start to finish.
Multimedia
authoring software (e.g., HyperStudio®) is
very popular
in today's classrooms. Multimedia and similar authoring
programs
are based on three fundamental characteristics:
- students
have nonlinear access to information instead of
predetermined
sequences to follow,
- students
make real-time decisions on what information to access,
and
- students
can use multiple information formats other than just
text, such
as graphics, animation, video, and sound (Yang &
Moore, 1996).
Systems
Approach
Instructional
design (ID) is the systematic planning of instruction.
Employing
ID principles in creating a multimedia project can help
ensure a
high-quality product that meets the needs of specific
learners.
The steps outlined here can be used by teachers in
designing projects
to present to students or by students in designing their
own hyper-media
projects. The systems approach can be integrated into both
traditional
and constructivist learning environments. In a traditional
classroom,
the teacher may use a multimedia project to teach a
particular subject,
or students may work individually on an assigned project.
In a constructivist
classroom, the teacher may have three or four students
work together
to develop a multimedia project on a specific subject.
The
ID process for developing a multimedia project includes:
- analyzing
learners
- selecting
a topic
- writing
objectives
- defining
project type
- designing
text, cards, and buttons
- designing
hyperlink navigation
- evaluating
the project
Analyzing
Learners
The
first step in multimedia project design is to consider the
learner.
Identifying general characteristics of your learners will
help you
select proper objectives, vocabulary, and content for the
project.
Before moving to the next step, ask yourself the following
questions:
- What
are the ages and reading and grade levels of students
creating
or using the program?
- What
if any experiences do they have using HyperStudio or
creating
a project with it?
Selecting
the Topic
Figure 1. A concept web created
with Inspiration®
can be used to organize cards and stacks.
|
The
project topic should be selected as for any other research
topic,
by choosing one correlated to the curriculum. After
selecting a topic,
construct a concept map or web either on paper or with
concept-mapping
software (e.g., Inspiration®). Concept maps
organize
content and illustrate its interrelationships (Figure 1).
Project
designers can then use this information to develop cards and
stacks.
Designers
also can use concept maps to outline the scope and
sequence of a
particular topic. The main topics generated from their
outlines
can then be used for home page buttons. The following is
an example
of a scope and sequence outline from Figure 2.
The Solar System
- Sun
- Inner
Planets
- Mercury
- Venus
- Earth
- Mars
- Outer
Planets
- Jupiter
- Saturn
- Uranus
- Neptune
- Pluto
Writing
Objectives
The
third step is writing clear, well-stated objectives.
Objectives
are precise statements of what students will learn as a
result of
creating and using the project. Objectives provide a
framework enabling
the project designer to select and organize the
instructional content
and evaluate a project. Write objectives in behavioral
terms, including
an action verb, a subject content reference, and an
optimal level
of achievement or degree of performance. Objectives should
correlate
to content standards developed by the academic department,
school
district, or state. The following is an example of
objectives from
a fourth-grade solar system unit correlated to Delaware
science
standard 4 (Delaware Department of Education, 1995):
Delaware Science Standard Four (Earth in Space).
Earth’s system is part of the solar system that
exists
within a vast universe. Earth’s motion and position
relative
to the sun and the moon are unique among planets of the
solar
system, allowing diverse forms of life to be supported
on Earth.
Students will learn that even though the distributions
and types
of materials differ from planet to planet, the chemical
composition
of materials is identical and the same laws of science
apply across
the universe.
Objective
1. The student will observe and record the apparent path
of the
sun and chart the times and directions of sunrise and
sunset over
a 30-day period.
Objective
2. The student will be able to construct a simple model to
explain
how the earth’s position relative to the sun’s
determines
the length of daylight.
Objective
3. The student will be able to develop a multimedia
project that
demonstrates the tilt of Earth in relation to the sun and
use it
to explain seasons at different locations on Earth.
Before
moving on to the next step in the process, ask yourself
the following
questions:
- Is
the topic correlated to the curriculum?
- Is
the content organized using a concept map or
web?
- What
is the objective of my project?
- What
type of project format will best communicate my
content?
Defining
Project Type
Four
basic types of interactive projects are possible:
Hyperbook, Research
Report, Tour, and Oral presentation. To determine the best
type
for your topic, review your objectives and intended
audience and
decide whether the project will be presented for a class
or individual
setting.
|
|
Interactive Hyperbook Project
Designers
create an electronic book in which each card appears
to be
a page. The pages can include multiple information
formats
other than just text (graphics, hyperlinks,
animation, video,
and sound). The Hyperbook format is good for
biographies,
short stories, picture books, and creative writing
projects
(Figure 2).
|
|
Figure 2. Hyperbook on the
biography
of Albert Einstein.
|
|
|
Interactive Research Report
This
is very much like any traditional research report,
except
it uses multimedia elements to present research
(Figure 3).
This format is the most common and can be used for
all types
of research topics.
|
|
Figure 3. Multimedia research
project
on the solar system.
|
|
|
Interactive Class Presentation
Designers
use a multimedia project to present information with
question-and-answer
feedback. The presentation requires a video
projector (Figure
4).
|
|
Figure 4. Interactive project
presentation
on dinosaurs.
|
|
|
Interactive Tour
This
is just what the name implies: a tour of places,
times, or
events. An interactive tour presents information by
linking
pictures and locations (Figure 5). Examples of
interactive
tours include a famous place (e.g., museum), an
historical
tour of a time period (e.g., Jurassic), or a
location (e.g.,
the human body).
|
|
Figure 5. Interactive
tour.
|
Designing
Text, Title Card, & Buttons
Visual
design of text, cards, and buttons is critical for
effective communication.
Text design includes font, style, size, and color. The
following
considerations are general design guidelines for creating
text,
cards, buttons, and graphics.
Figure 6. Serif fonts should be
used for
body text. |
Fonts
fall into several broad categories, the two most common
being serif
and sans serif. Serif fonts (e.g., Times New Roman,
Garamond) have
beginning or finishing strokes on each letter (Figure 6).
Sans serifs
(e.g., Arial, Helvetica) have no strokes (Figure 7). Sans
serif fonts
are best suited for titles, headers, and labels because they
are easily
recognized and understood. Serif fonts are more suited for
body text
because they are easier to read for extended time periods
than sans
serif fonts. As a general rule, use no more than two
different typefaces
and colors (e.g., Times New Roman for body text, Verdana for
headings).
Use bold for titles, bold or plain for body. Shadow and
Outline are
too difficult to read.
Figure 7. Sans serif fonts should
be used
for titles. |
Balance
of Text on Card refers to the way authoring software uses
cards and
stacks to develop a project. Each screen of information is
called
a card. A group of related cards is called a stack. When
placing text
on cards, it is important to balance text and graphics.
Although you
can choose a scrolling text object, be careful not to place
so much
text on one card that the reader has to keep scrolling and
scrolling
to read it all. Readers get bored quickly when they have to
scroll
through too much information on one card. Try to write in a
succinct
manner and fit the amount of text that can be viewed without
scrolling
in the text object box.
The
Title Card is the most important card in any multimedia
project.
The title card is an index of the subject content and
provides the
links to other cards and stacks (see Figure 5). It
functions much
like a table of contents. The title card should include:
- Project
Title
- Author
Name
- Project
Subject
- Project
Objective(s)
- Graphics
- Navigation
buttons
Before
moving on to the next step in the ID process, ask the
following
questions:
- Are
the fonts and style readable?
- Is
there too much text on the card?
- Are
the color combinations harmonious?
- Do
the graphics communicate the main idea of the particular
card?
- Is
the card visually balanced?
Designing
Hyperlink Navigation
|
Navigation
through a multimedia project refers to the order or
path the
designer uses to connect cards and stacks. These
connections
are called hyperlinks or, more commonly, links. The
links
connect cards sequentially or nonsequentially. Three
navigation
structures are available to show the
interrelationships of
the project’s content: linear, hierarchical,
and network.
Linear
navigation is easy. Information is arranged in
alphabetical
or chronological order. However, this navigation
design does
not take full advantage of hyperlinks, which can
link information
to any other piece of related information (Figure
8).
|
|
|
Figure 8. This project is an
example
of linear navigation. Each card can be navigated by
the order
of the planets.
|
|
|
Hierarchical
organization allows navigation through information
in a family-tree
type of sequence (Figure 9).
A
network organization allows navigation through
information
based on the interrelationships between cards. The
complexity
of a network structure depends on how many
interrelationships
between cards and stacks exist (Figure 10).
|
|
Figure 9. This project shows
hierarchical
organization. Each card is navigated by a
hierarchical order
of the solar system content.
|
|
Multimedia
projects are built around these three structural
themes. The
title or home card is designed based on the
structure and
sequence of the content information. In designing
multimedia
projects, the subject content is commonly organized
in a hierarchical
sequence. The complexity of content organization and
network
structure is based on the subject matter, learner
characteristics,
and project objectives (Yang & Moore, 1996).
Before moving
on to the next step of the design process, ask the
following
questions:
- Which
navigation structure is best suited for my
content?
- Is
the content organized into subtopics (this can
help with
complex interrelationships)?
|
|
|
Figure 10. The complexity of a
network
structure depends on how many interrelationships
exist between
cards and stacks.
|
Evaluating
Multimedia Projects
Multimedia
project assessment is based on criteria that reflect the
project’s
quality. Because a multimedia project is outcome-based,
one of the
best assessment tools is a rubric. A rubric should contain
project
tasks and a grading scale. The rubric should be holistic,
be criterion-referenced,
and indicate how well the student successfully designed
the project
according to specific criteria. The criteria will vary
according
to the level of project difficulty.
Tasks
Authentic
assessment of a project is contingent on the development
of specific
tasks that produce a high-quality project. The tasks
should reflect
the level of difficulty and indicators of mastery of
project objectives.
To determine the difficulty of the project tasks, you have
to review
steps one (Analyzing Learners), two (Selecting Topic), and
three
(Writing Objectives) of the design process. However, basic
tasks
should include:
- Planning
- Mechanics
- Design
- Visual
Effects
- Internet
Use
Grading Scale
The final step in constructing a project rubric is to
create a grading scale that will adequately reflect student performance. Once
the task expectations of the project have been determined, the instructor needs
to specify levels of performance for each task, calculate, and then convert
the scale to a numerical or letter grade scale. One of the most common ways
of indicating project proficiency levels is to use a 1–5 ranking of lowest
to highest, 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = good, 4 = very good, 5 = outstanding (see
the copy-me
page). A letter grade can be based on the total number of points, for
example A = 55–50, B = 49–44, C = 43–33, D = 32–22, and
an F = 21–below.
Conclusion
Systematic
planning can help teachers efficiently design high-quality
and effective
multimedia projects. The approach provided in this article
moves
users through a process that begins with analyzing the
audience
and ends with evaluation. Try it the next time your
students design
a multimedia project.
Resources
HyperStudio
is available from Knowledge Adventure, 19840 Pioneer Ave.,
Torrance,
CA 90503; 800.545.7677; www.hyperstudio.com.
Inspiration
is available from Inspiration Software, Inc., 7412 SW
Beaverton
Hillsdale Hwy., Ste. 102, Portland, OR 97225-2167;
800.877.4292
or 503.297.3004, fax 503.297.4676; www.inspiration.com.
References
Delaware
Department of Education. (1995). State of Delaware
science curriculum
framework [Online document]. Dover, DE:
Author. Available:
www.doe.state.de.us/Standards/Science/science_toc.html.
Yang,
C., & Moore, D. M. (1996). Designing hypermedia
systems for
instruction. Journal of Educational Technology Systems,
24(1),
3–30.
|
|
Michael F. Ruffini
(mruffini@brandywine.net)
is an assistant professor of instructional
technology at Delaware
State University. He teaches both undergraduate and
graduate
courses in Web page design and development. He holds
an EdD
from Widener University. In addition, he is an
adjunct IT
faculty member at Penn State Great Valley and Web
training
consultant for school districts and businesses. He
can be
reached at 236 E. Evergreen Street, West Grove, PA
19390;
610.869.2631.
|
Copyright © 2000, ISTE (International
Society for Technology in Education).
All rights reserved.
|
